Essay --

The Flea: Rhetoric and Poetry Mingling In John Donne’s sonnet, â€Å"The Flea†, Donne utilizes the pride of the insect to differentiate the immaterial size of the bug and the unfathomably noteworthy allegory joined to the bug. The speaker of the sonnet is conversing with a lady, attempting to persuade her into having intercourse with him outside of marriage. This sonnet can be broken into three refrains, of nine lines each, uses the picture of the insect to pass on three fundamental thoughts: the first as a vessel where their substance blends, second as the establishment of marriage, lastly as a unimportant portrayal of respect which would have no impact on them. Donne’s hyperbolic utilization of the insect stretches out through the sonnet as a mystical vanity to pass on a legitimate contention out of something apparently disconnected to the current circumstance. The speaker begins his contention by first referencing that the lady has denied the speaker something. In any case, it is at first muddled what was denied, all that is known is that by observing â€Å"†¦this bug, and imprint in this,/How little that which [she] deniest [him] is†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , in this manner resembling how the insect, much the same as whatever she denies him, is irrelevant (Donne lines 1-2). This thought of inconsequential things meaning considerably more when it's all said and done turns into a basic string, which is sewn all through the sonnet. The speaker at that point noticed how â€Å"†¦in this bug [their] two bloods blended be†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , implying a sensual blending of their blood (Donne line 4). This represents the very quintessence of these two entwining and getting one out of a solitary vessel. The insect is a vessel that represents association, for this situation the physical relationship between the speaker and the lady through sex and the trading of organic liquids. It is impo... ... make no difference at long last. Basically his contention comes down to demonstrating that sex with the speaker would not be despicable or corrupt, and that every one of her feelings of trepidation are unwarranted. Donne utilizes the bug all through his sonnet as a fundamental connection between sexual success and association. The insect rises above its underlying presence as a bothering bug and become a presence fundamental to their association. It is through this portrayal of the bug, which permits Donne to bring the peruser into a contention of licentious want besting respectability. The bug is basic to this contention, without which there is nothing establishing the undeniable jumps of rationale made by the speaker and Donne. The pride is a mainstream scholarly gadget Donne utilizes in his verse, and in this specific case he utilizes it wonderfully all through the whole sonnet to make an adoration sonnet that rides the line among verse and way of talking.

Creating Effective Fill-in-the-Blank Questions

Making Effective Fill-in-the-Blank Questions Instructors are confronted with composing target tests and tests consistently. The principle sorts of target addresses that instructors regularly decide to incorporate are various decision, coordinating, genuine bogus, and fill-in-the-clear. Most instructors endeavor to get a blend of these sorts of inquiries so as to best cover the destinations that were a piece of the exercise plan. Fill-in-the-clear inquiries are a typical kind of inquiry because of their simplicity of creation and value in classes over the educational plan. They are viewed as a target question in light of the fact that there is just a single conceivable answer that is right. Questions Stems: who (is, was)what (is)when (did)where (did) These stems are ordinarily used to gauge a wide assortment of generally straightforward abilities and explicit information. These incorporate the: Information on termsKnowledge of standards, strategies, or proceduresKnowledge of explicit factsSimple translation of information There are various preferences to fill-in-the-clear inquiries. They give a superb way to estimating explicit information, they decrease speculating by the understudies, and they power the understudy to gracefully the appropriate response. At the end of the day, educators can get a genuine vibe for what their understudies really know. These inquiries function admirably over an assortment of classes. Following are a couple of models: Math instructors utilize these inquiries when they need the understudy to give the appropriate response without demonstrating their work. Model: : The nuclear number of Oxygen is _____.Language Arts instructors can utilize these inquiries to distinguish statements, characters, and other fundamental ideas. Model: I am the Canterbury Tales traveler who was hitched multiple times. _____.Foreign language educators discover these kinds of inquiries helpful in light of the fact that they permit the instructor to judge not just the understudies comprehension of a specific word yet additionally how it ought to be composed. Model: Jai _____ (hungry). Building Excellent Fill-In-The-Blank Questions Fill-in-the-clear inquiries appear to be very simple to make. With these sorts of inquiries, you don't need to concoct answer decisions as you accomplish for various decision questions. Be that as it may, despite the fact that they seem, by all accounts, to be simple, understand that there are various issues that may emerge while making these kinds of inquiries. Following are a few hints and proposals that you can use as you compose these inquiries for your group appraisals. Just use fill-in-the-clear inquiries for testing significant focuses, not explicit details.Indicate the units and level of accuracy anticipated. For instance, on a math question whose answer is various decimal spots, ensure that you state what number of decimal spots you need the understudy to include.Omit just keywords.Avoid such a large number of spaces in a single thing. It is ideal to just have a couple of spaces for understudies to fill in per question.When conceivable, put spaces close to the finish of the item.Do not give signs by altering the length of the clear or the quantity of spaces. At the point when you have wrapped up the appraisal, make certain to take the evaluation yourself. That will assist you with being sure that each question has just a single conceivable answer. This is a typical error that frequently prompts additional work on your part. Impediments of Fill-In-The-Blank Questions There are various constraints that instructors ought to comprehend when utilizing fill-in-the-clear inquiries: They are poor for estimating complex learning assignments. Rather, they are normally utilized for general information inquiries on the most minimal degrees of Blooms Taxonomy.They must be composed explicitly and cautiously (similarly as with all items).A word bank can give exact data similarly just as an evaluation without a word bank.Students who are poor spellers may encounter issues. It is significant for you to choose if that spelling is going to represent a mark against the understudy and if so for what number of focuses. Understudy Strategies for Answering Fill-in-the-Blank Try not to respond to an inquiry until you have perused it as far as possible through.Always do the least demanding and most clear inquiries first.Pay thoughtfulness regarding the language of the inquiry (action word tense) as a cluePay consideration regarding a word bank (in the event that one is given) and utilize the procedure of eliminationRead through after each response to ensure it sounds right.

Role of Media and Islam in Pakistan’s Politics Free Essays

With the finish of the virus war, the drive towards democratization expected focus state. Out of a complete 206 states on the planet, 195 professes to be either popularity based or republican. Despite it, the nature and capacity of numerous self star asserted law based frameworks come up short. We will compose a custom article test on Job of Media and Islam in Pakistan’s Politics or on the other hand any comparable subject just for you Request Now This has prompted global endeavors, drove by the US, to take part in the twin undertaking of vote based system advancement and majority rule government assurance. India joined the network of the majority rules systems in 2000, at the turn of the thousand years, and later turned into an individual from the UN popularity based assets in2005. It has tried to add to the endeavors focused on advancement and fortifying of majority rules system in its own specific manner. The writer of the book under audit, Professor Muni, calls it â€Å"significant shift† in India’s international strategy. As a nearby adherents of India’s international strategy he has attempts to disconnected the â€Å"democracy dimension† in India’s international strategy towards its quick neighbors on an individual nation premise more than three particular stages, which makes intriguing readings. Teacher Muni has enough understanding as a scholarly and an ambassador to remark on such a significant issue with incredible consideration and persistence. After a concise audit of speculations of vote based systems and its interface with international strategy, the creator arranges the Indian experience more than three distinct stages. He contends during the primary stage (1947-1960s) not long after opportunity from provincial principle, India accentuation â€Å"independence and nationalism†. The chief modeler of Indian international strategy, Jawahar Lal Nehru, set out to work of free, helpful and quiet Asia. This clarified Nehru’s vociferous contention for incorporation of socialist china in the comity of countries as a free state. He went on to molded his strategy of non arrangement as a principle benchmark of India’s international strategy and attempt to avoid the bipolar force legislative issues. His strategies towards neighboring nations exhibited his inclination for majority rule governments regardless of the trade offs he made to secure the vital and financial interests of India. The creator makes a nitty gritty examination of Nehru’s approach towards Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Myanmar and Pakistan and reasons that Nehru’s inclinations for majority rules systems was regularly bested by India’s imperative security concerns. During the subsequent stage (1960s-2000) the replacements of Nehru, the creator contends, received a down to business strategy empty a vision that denoted the Nehru years. The post 1962 (sino-indian war) years, as Nehru admitted stunned him out of his vision and arranged the justification for unashamed authenticity in Indian international strategy. Educator Muni show through his account of exciting bends in the road of Nepalese legislative issues that Indian bolstered popularity based minutes in Nepal when its fit its key advantages unhampered problem that portrayed by Nehruvian years. All through, the principle driver of India’s arrangement towards neighbors was to keep the district free from ill-disposed impacts. The security challenges post by china and Pakistan to a great extent decided the parameters of India’s international strategy since the 1970s. Indeed, even as India developed as a majority rule country and foundations advancing fair qualities took firm roots in the nation, during this stage there was no eagerness to engender popular government and empower equitable powers in the area. By and by, India assumed a significant job in the freedom of East Pakistan in 1971, incorporated Sikkim in 1975 and bolstered ousted vote based powers from Myanmar in 1970s and 1980s. Vote based system made a difference just when it joined with India’s vital interests. Be that as it may, india decide to diassociate it self from fair powers in the mid 1970s. in Bhutan, india’s agreed with the lord and disheartened the famous development raised by Bhutanis of Nepales district. It is peaceful and other india constrained the nepaled lord to haggle with the majority rule powers in 1988. On account of Myanmar, since the late 1980s, it chose to retouch its relationship with the military Junta and disregard the popularity based powers to adjust china’s expanding nearness to Myanmar. The third stage since the beginning of new thousand years as discovered India in the organization of US, trying to advance and secure majority rules system around the globe. India has aligned its arrangement towards its neighbors in like manner. In spite of its revultion from the maost of Nepal, it assumed a basic job in the mainstreaming of this gathering and restored the just procedure. In spite of playing a humble however basic job in Bangladesh’s come back to popular government in 1990, it has kept up an examination lack of approachability from the crude of Bangladesh legislative issues. As of late a new influx of the vote based system cleared the area. The creator has acknowledged India’s political reactions to these changes. There is likewise a short conversation on India’s endeavors and indo-US coordination during the time spent remaking and democratization in Afghanistan since 9/11. The creator infers that taking into account India’s vital interests in Afghanistan, it is basic for India to proceed with its formative work in spite of assaults on its residents by paksitan-sponsopred psychological militants. In some creator recommend that in its direct of international strategy, India ought not indiscriminately follow the US at the expense of its key advantages. The book gives valuable experiences to India’s neighborhood strategy in the course of the most recent six decades. The creator brings to manage his own association many driving on-screen characters in the two India and Nepal to introduce his examination of Nepalese legislative issues powerfully. His investigation of different neighbors of India by one way or another battles to come that degree of consistence and force. To be offer to the creator, given india’s influence in Nepal and its capacity to impact its governmental issues, Nepal was sure to draw in that much consideration and care. Be that as it may, one thought about whether the creator have concurred some space to India’s response to the blemished idea of Srilankan majority rule government with its absence of accentuation on inclusivity and pluralism. Given the risk it presented to the Srilankan nation and profound Indian inclusion during the 1980s, Srilanka merited some consideration in the book. To the end peruser of the book finds the book and the writer holds a solid grasp over the material and issue it contained. The book merit the consideration of international strategy investigators and researchers of worldwide relations in India in light of the fact that as of late India has tried to illuminate its local approach probably with accentuation on building a trap of interdependencies the neighbor lastly the book is a decent portrayal of India’s international strategy uncommonly in reference to its persuasions the popularity based situation in the external world. The most effective method to refer to Role of Media and Islam in Pakistan’s Politics, Papers

A Question of Social Justice - Free Essay Example

Only thing we have to fear is fear itself FDR in his inaugural speech in March 1933 was alerting the nation that fear was making things worse. Fear is such an incredible force, it has the power to bring people to their knees, paralyze some from moving at all, and make people run for safety due to some perceived threat to their well-being or way of life. Such is the power of fear that it can make grown men and women cower and seek to create borders around all that they hold dear. Unfortunately, this can especially be damaging when those who profess to have a relationship with Jesus Christ use fear as a means to justify violations of justice or to attack others within the Christian community. Fear often can pit us against those we profess to love. Fear can take normally rational people into the abyss of anxiety and make them utilize weapons they would generally not in order to avoid changing, to maintain comfort, and often makes situations worse by creating unneeded/unwarranted conflict. It is in a stance of fear where Evangelical Christians find themselves with the topic of social justice. So much so that as recent as September 2018 a group of prominent Evangelical Christian men authored and published a statement https://statementonsocialjustice.com/ in order to take a stand against the evil of social justice. These men believe that social justice is corrupting the Gospel of Christ and is an attack on His church. They felt so passionate about this new obsession a growing number of believers have and how much of threat it is to the church/gospel that they issued a 14 point statement to debunk it. As one of the writers, Tom Ascol, wrote in a September 4, 2018 blog post; we determined to make a public stand together in hopes of warning about the dangers we see in some of what is being promoted in the name of social justice. This public stand comes at an interesting time in our history not only do we currently have a nationalistic, racist, and xenophobic president (he who must not be named) that was overwhelmingly voted for and continues to be supported by White evangelical Christians (80%), the rise of hate crimes and police brutality against people of color is rising at alarming numbers . Not to mention that The Gospel Coalition held a huge MLK 50 celebration/conference where many evangelicals called out the church for supporting white supremacy and ignoring issues of race the month before the statement was released. For these men the time seemed ripe for a broad sweeping indictment against social justice. A combination of what seems like righteous indignation and overwhelming fear that Christians were being led away from fundamental Christianity that is overwhelmingly based on White theology. The fear of socialism is pretty evident throughout the statement. Socialism in the sense that equality is far more important than be united in Christ. That political socialism is creeping into the church and the language being used by many Christians doing justice work is creating attacks on the oneness of the church and making believers turn from God to humanism. There is also a rise among many evangelicals who are questioning issues of race especially in stances of police brutality, which I believe can traced back to the killing of Mike Brown and Ferguson. The statement reads like a cautionary tale where the church needs to be protected or else things will fall apart and the church will fall victim to secular culture. When describing what this final project was all about, this declaration stuck out to me Write about what pisses you off it made me laugh and exclaim; there isnt enough paper in the world for me to write about what pisses me off. Snark is a gift and it should never go to waste. As this assignments deadline looms, I found that the thing that has been pissing me off the most lately and most especially this first semester of grad school is evangelical Christianity and its unwillingness to come together over issues of justice, mercy and grace. Over the past two years my place of employment has come under attack for creating spaces to talk about injustice, racism, and sexism. Many were accused (myself included) of making issues where none exist. Some individuals were completely roasted online by colleagues and students for creating divisions by calling out injustice and race issues. One would think at a Christian higher education institution that these issues would be welcomed and openly e ngaged unfortunately no. The situation is so out of hand that using the term social justice is equivalent to swearing on the campus. Some staff and faculty are so adamant that social justice is not a gospel issue that they openly bad mouth others who advocate for it. The board even got involved at one point and ultimately decided to axe our president for his diversity stances. There is also the situation of my former church which I mentioned in my race workshop paper and how it was the impetus for me leaving that church. I have been wounded and deeply traumatized by the negative reactions to social justice, race, equality, and feminism so that when the statement was released on September 5, I was not at all surprised but deeply grieved. The statement made me revisit all the hurt/anger of the past two years in a fresh way it was raw and ugly. Im utterly disgusted and deeply saddened by this statement as it fails to acknowledge that many devout/sincere followers of Christ see justice work as an outpouring of l ove. The love so freely given by God and his redemptive work. Many understand the commands to love God and love people as not only a model for life but a mandate to work for justice. So, that is why the statement pisses me off, as to why it is a justice issue this statement is a direct violation of the principles of Human Dignity, The Common Good, Solidarity (virtue and principle) and it is based on a reductionist view of Gospel. Within Christianity, statements like this are nothing new throughout history, Christians have come together to scrutinize and respond to perceived threats to the faith. These are designed to address cultural shifts, societal pressures on the church, and answer scripturally to these so called threats. Many are well intentioned and address real issues, though not all hit the mark correctly as they will create divisions that are not entirely necessary. They can also be distractions, the energy and time used to craft such statements could be used elsewhere in helping the poor, the disenfranchised, victims of hate crimes, fighting systemic injustices, or simply creating healthy/loving communities. This statement presents a truncated Gospel, one that reduces the Gospel to just salvation. It does not take into account the words and actions of Jesus in the New Testament. It reduces the work of Christ to just being the means of reconciliation with God, the eraser of sins (personal sins) it does not take into account that Jesus came to bring about the Kingdom of God. In the book of Mark, Jesus preaches about the kingdom of God, which is really the good news. In the book of Luke (4:18-19) , Jesus makes this proclamation: The Spirit of the Lord is on me, because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to set the oppressed free, to proclaim the year of the Lords favor. Jesus went to synagogues where ever he travel to preach this message, which often was not well received by the Jewish leaders of the day. This is the true richness of the Gospel and like many in Jesus day, we want to change the message and perhaps kill the messenger. Jesus message is not just a way to receive salvation, it is a way to live life. Thinking through this statement, it seems to me that the authors of this statement are modern day Pharisees. Perhaps that is too harsh a criticism of these men and their intentions or maybe it is not harsh enough. Jesus even warns the Pharisees of his day in Matthew 23:23 Woe to you, teachers of the law and Pharisees, you hypocrites! You give a tenth of your spices mint, dill and cumin. But you have neglected the more important matters of the law justice, mercy and faithfulness. You should have practiced the latter, without neglecting the former. This statement was not only written exclusively by men, but they are also all white men there is no inclusion of Christians of color or women (its like we dont matter). Not only does it uphold the patriarchy of our day, it is fairly racist in its terminology by trying to uphold the standards of white supremacy (read culture affirmation) and it is political in tone though the authors try to deny this. The statement also reeks of privilege as Tom Ascol puts it, On June 19 of this year I had the privilege of meeting in the iconic Herbs House coffee sh op in Dallas with 13 other men to discuss our common concerns about some teachings and practices being advocated in the name of social justice. We had never been in a room together but all accepted the invitation of Josh Buice, who was aware that we had similar perspectives on this growing movement . All of these had never been in a room together but knew enough about the threat to their comfort, privilege, and supremacy they could craft such a statement. At first read of this statement, I thought to myself, just ignore it but at this time there are over 10,000 signatures on it and that just gnaws at my soul. There was a slight arrogance in me that wanted to rip it up theologically point by point but after much thought, that didnt seem like the wisest use of my time or yours. Plus, I do not wholly disagree with all the affirmations in this statement. There is some good stuff in there that I can get fully back like the affirmations in Imago Dei, Scripture, Justice, and Salvation sections though we deny areas are not something I can support. This statement takes much for granted, for instance no terms are defined not even social justice. The authors throw words like intersectionality, radical feminism, critical race theory, privilege, relativism, authentic justice, and even heresy without taking the time to define what those words mean. They just assume everyone who reads this will understand what they are saying but those words are loaded with meaning and are used differently by Christians and non-Christians. It astonishes me that educated people even signed this document before asking questions about the meaning behind what they authors intended. The very thing they are trying to protect the church from, is not even remotely defined in the statement. From that perspective this is a weak stance to take and perhaps they should have taken more time to craft their proclamation. What is dangerous in this statement is the supposition that getting the right doctrine, will then set everything else straight. That if you affirm that racism, misogyny, classism, and injustice are sins against God and the oneness of the church, then there wont be problems these things will somehow magically disappear. It takes for granted the process of sanctification, the fact that we are humans prone to mistakes, free will, and ego/pride. Simply because you believe wholly in the redemptive work of Christ and your identity is in Him, does not automatically mean one wont be racist, sexist, classist, and will be completely motivated to do justice. One just need look to the Apostle Peter and know that having a relationship with Jesus does not erase the issues we struggle with, the biases we have, and the pride within us. Not only did this man walk with Jesus, serve with Him, and have access to Him, Peter was also a hot head, a liar, and a racist. The scripture recounts many times wher e Peter messed up from the time he tried to tell Jesus he wasnt going to die, to cutting off a mans ear, denying he knew Jesus (three times) and then to being rebuked by Apostle Paul for treating Jews above gentiles. Perhaps an unintended consequence of this statement is that one could read it, agree with it, sign it and go on their merry way. It does nothing to motivate those that agree with it do to change anything about how they live. The status quo can remain, you can believe in Jesus, the Scriptures, and in the church but do nothing for the poor, abstain from changing/dismantling systemic evil, and criticize those who do justice work. Christians throughout history have been well intentioned, loved Jesus, and wanted to live their lives for God but didnt do anything to stop slavery, genocide, wanted to stop the suffrage movement, upheld Jim Crow laws, and wanted nothing to do with the civil rights movement. It seems that all of these people would have been fine signing this statement since one can still be a part of the church and change nothing no rocking the boat here. Interestingly the statement is written in a creedal way, it wishes to mimic the tone of creeds like Nicene and Apostles by its affirmations. Leaves one to wonder who gave them this authority and by what right can they issue such a statement. As far as I know, they are not church fathers, just prominent pastors within a small section of evangelical circles. This is where I think a significant injustice is occurring to the principle of common good. The breaking apart of community, the intentional splitting of Christian fellowship, and creating a society of division and impeding people from making conditions better in social life for common community. It utterly destroys the oneness of Christ they are so desperately trying to preserve for the evangelical Christian community. Many earnest Christians truly believe that social justice is imperative to a life of faith that Social justice is about turning things the right way up the way that God intended. It is God who demands justice in a w orld where injustice is rife. Solidarity comes under attack in this statement via many of the affirmations, particularly the ones on Sexuality/Marriage, Complementarianism, Race/Ethnicity, Culture, and Racism. There is division created in the ways these affirmations are worded and what the denials state. Race issues come under great attack and makes it easy for people to not stand with brown/black brothers and sisters who face discrimination, prejudice, hate crimes, and racism. It puts a great deal of onus on people of color to just forgive and get over it. Attacking social justice the way the document does sends a very clear message that they only identity that matters is the identity in Christ. That to take a stand for people of color in name of justice is to create problems where none exist. Jemar Tisby puts it this way, While Christians from many traditions, races and ethnicities have displayed a concern for social justice, it is a topic that particularly concerns black and brown folks. We have endured a long history of race-based discrimination that did not simply disappear after the March on Washington, the passage of the Civil Rights Act or the election of the nations first black president. Statements that dismiss social justice send a message that the ongoing marginalization many minorities still experience and struggle against is of no concern to their fellow Christians. Or to God. Or to the Bible. The family of God cannot stand united in solidarity with the continued marginalization of people of color. How can we serve the oppressed, stand with those in poverty, or act for the good of everyone when we cannot acknowledge the experiences of people of color?

Creative Accounting - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 24 Words: 7095 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Literature review on creative accounting: Fair value measurement on property, plant and equipment and investment property 1 Introduction As Blake and Lunt (2000, p.375) rightly surmise within their work on accounting standards, the term creative accounting, was originally coined by the media, and it was particularly prevalent around the time of the Enron financial disaster. It was partially because of the financial collapses of firms like Enron and the major debate that followed these events, that International Accounting Standards were introduced. Amongst the main objectives of these standards, which were intended to make financial statements easier to understand and provide for more transparency (Alfredson et at 2007, p.6), one of the aims was curtail future opportunities for creative accounting.. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Creative Accounting" essay for you Create order The IASB, when designing these standards started from the premise that corporate business had an obligation to account to investors, creditors and other stakeholder on a regular basis, usually within the annual financial statements, about the performance, situation and future prospects of that business (Alfredson et al 2007, p.4), which the focus being on the accuracy of this information. It thus sought to legalise this obligation and, through the standards, ensure that this result was achieved. However, despite the introduction of the standards and regulations, as Mulford and Comiskev (2002), Blake and Lunt (2000) have observed, irregularities in financial statements are still occurring. Many academic and professional observers are of the opinion that the measurements introduced by the IASB is serving to obscure concrete evidence in financial statements (Swanson and Miller 1989, p.1). In particular these concerns are centred around the boards movement away from historical cost accounting to a system of fair value accounting (Alfredson et al 2007, p.48), the introduction 4 of which was against the wishes of many stakeholders (Williams 2006). Fair value is intended to improve the accounting measurements used in financial statements by ensuring that these reflect relevant and current valuations of the business (Blake and Gowthorpe 1998, p.1). However, the argument against fair value, quite apart from the fact that it takes up an inordinate amount of management time (Scott 2003, p.2), is that it provides opportunity for manipulation and misuse and thus increases the potential for creative accounting. This is particularly prevalent in the area of asset valuation. The intention of this study is to investigate the arguments and debate that continues to surround the concepts and practices of creative accounting and the impact, if any, that fair value has had upon this issue. In particular, the study will concentrate upon these elements in relation to their use in the valuation of property, plant and equipment and investment property, which can in many companies, form a major part of their current balance sheet valuation. The objective is to assess and evaluate whether the introduction of the fair value concept has led to the intended improvement of financial reporting in these specific areas of the financial statements, or if creative accounting methods and processes are still being used to circumvent these improvements. It has been decided to conduct this research by using a literature review format. 2 Definitions, meanings and theories of creative accounting 2.1 Definitions and meanings Before being able to assess the extent to which the concept of fair value has impacted upon the reporting accurate values of assets in financial statements and the reduction of the prevalence creative accounting following the introduction of new standards and measurements, if any, it is important to understand the meaning and theories of creative accounting. Furthermore, understanding the reasons why these actions are being taken by so many corporate organisations is of equal relevance. Within the wealth of literature surrounding accounting and accounting standards, there are a wealth of diverse definitions for the term creative accounting Hey Cunningham, D (2002). For example, from an academic viewpoint Blake and Lunt (2000, p.375) define it as that which does not faithfully represent the underlying commercial activity and is therefore not neutral. Amat et al (1999, p.3) use even stronger terms to define creative ac counting, which they indicate is a process whereby accountants use their knowledge of accounting rules to manipulate the figures reported in the accounts of a business. As is perhaps to be expected, other stakeholders have been more forthright in their definitions and opinions. A business journalist, Ian Griffiths (quoted in Amat et al 1999, p.3), reveals the media view when he stated, Every set of published accounts is based on books which have been gently cooked or completely roasted commenting further that It is legitimate. It is creative accounting. An Investment analyst, Terry Smith, interviewed by the same authors (Amat et al 6 1999), also showed the level of concern felt about creative accounting in this segment of stakeholders. He commented, We felt that much of the apparent growth in profits which had occurred in the 1980s was the result of accounting sleight of hand rather that genuine economic growth. 2.2 Acceptance and reasons Acceptance levels and appropriateness in regards to the performance of creative accounting also show similar differences of opinions depending upon which particular stakeholder views are garnered. Whilst many say that manipulation, which is at the foundation of creative accounting, is an inevitability that cannot be addressed, whilst others believe that is the weakness of rules and measurements that allow this practice to continue (Langendijk et al 2003, p.31 and p.350). It is apparent that the media and investors support the latter of these opinions. However, according to a survey conducted by Amat et al (1999, p.13) as part of their research into creative accounting, the auditor profession not only believed that it was inevitable, with 91% of UK respondents believing that it could not be solve, but also over a third were of the opinion that it was a legitimate business tool. As indicated earlier, it is also felt that the introduction of the fair value concept as a measurement that would reduce the incidence of creative accounting is criticised as not being capable of fulfilling this role. The consensus is that this concept is expensive to implement, difficult to determine and verify, due mainly to objectivity characteristics, and is therefore easy for the opportunistic organisation to manipulate (Benston 12008, p.103). 2.3 Manifestation and methods of creative accounting Historically, creative accounting methods are used in a number of ways, all of which are designed to influence the financial statements and results produced by commercial organisations. Irrespective of whether these are directed towards the profit and loss account or balance sheet, all of these methods will have the effect of altering, or manipulating, the value of the business. One popular method is that known as income smoothing (Alfredson et al 2007, p.682). The objective of this method is to avoid the appearance of volatile changes in profit growth levels. For example, if a business moves from 1 million profit in one year to 2 million in the next, but it is expected that the third year profits would fall by 25% in comparison to year two, income smoothing may be implemented in this year. The smoothing effect is designed to show a more controlled and sustained level of growth The smoothing process can be achieved in a number of ways. One of the most obvious routes of achieving this situation is by the manipulation of provisions or accruals (Antill and Lee 2005, p.129). In the case described above increasing accruals or reducing debtors would have the desired effect of moving profit from the second year into the third, thus smoothing out the volatile look of the profit curve that previously existed. As some of these provisions are based upon estimations, manipulation is difficult to verify (Alfredson et al 2007, p.682). For example, within the financial statements of financial institutions such as banks, there is a requirement to provide for existing and potential bad debts. As an significant element of the bad debt provision calculation is based upon judgement, which can be biased, it is possible for these figures to be manipulated to show a more favourable position than might in reality be the case. Another method of manipulating the financial results is related to earnings management. In this case the management of the business will have a particular target in mind (Mulford and Comiskev 2002, p.15). One target might be to move earnings from one year to another with the specific intent of manipulating the profitability of the business for that particular year. An example of this is given in the research of Amat et al (1999), where they took an existing investment that had a historical cost of 1 million but a current value of 3 million. As the business managers in this situation have the freedom to choose exactly which year they can sell the investment and realise the profit, they have the ability to manipulate the financial statement results by their decision. Alternatively, sometimes a special one off charge may be included within the accounts, which will depress the profits and earnings. For example, if the payment of a lawsuit has been agreed to be completed over a period of years, it is possible that the management will decide to include all of these payments within one year. The management is then able to explain away part of the poor performance as result from this exceptional event. The difficulty is that, upon further examination of some exceptional items in corporate financial statement, it is often difficult to justify them being excluded from normal business operations. Therefore, it could be argued that they are, in effect, simply attempts to window dress the figures in an effort to put a more positive view on the results (Stolowy and Beton 2004). One element of earnings management that has proven popular with corporate management is the big bath scenario, which is seen by academics as an opportunistic method of creative accounting (Reidl 2004, p.823). The theory behind the big bath is particularly useful when an organisations management can foresee that the results for a current year are going to be poor. To limit the impact that this might have upon the future, and effectively to show that this situation will soon be reversed, management will seek to increase these losses. In other words, they will dump as much expense as they can into the bad year (hence the term big bath) so that the next years profit show a more significant improvement in the companys fortunes. Often this method of creative accounting will be used where there has been a change of management during the year. By affecting the big bath method, the new CEO is able to pass the blame for poor results onto the previous management team (Riahi-Belkaoui 2004 p.58). Of course, the manipulated improvement to the following years profits will have the benefit of improving the new teams reputation with investors and other stakeholders. Another example of creative accounting is apparent in the methods used by corporations to move items off balance sheet, particularly in the case of debt and financing (Pierce-Brown and Steele 1999, p.159). For example, where corporations sell property portfolios through a process of sale and leaseback, profits can be enhanced by manipulating the value of the portfolio. The downside of this process is that increases the rental amount but, the advantages are that this is spread over a number of years and, in addition, the increased values will have an immediate positive effect upon the current value of the business. In addition, companies are also afforded the ability through these processes to violate and circumvent debt covenants (Mulford and Comiskev 2002, p.91). As Pierce-Brown and Steele (1999, p.162) suggest, all it requires to achieve this situation is a change in the accounting policies put in place for the organisation. In a number of creative accounting methods described within this section, particularly those relating to fixed assets, the key element of the method is its reliance upon judgement. If corporations therefore wish to manipulate their results in any of these ways therefore, all they have to do is ensure that the judgement secured is biased in the direction they require (Alfredson et al 2007, p.259). With auditors, actuaries and other experts having differing standards by which they would estimate valuations, for example some would be more cautious than others, influencing financial results in a particular direction is not impossible to achieve. One of the concerns that have been expressed following the change to fair value is that, rather than reducing the opportunity for manipulation and creative accounting that previously existed, in certain areas this measurement has increased the potential. This is particularly seen to be the case in terms of business assets (Antill and Lee (2005) and Stolowy and Breton (2004)). For example, as with other areas of manipulation, the ability to be able to choose between some elements of asset valuations being based upon the historical cost basis, or using the fair value method of revaluation, this area can also be seen to have the potential of being influenced by biased judgements. 2.4 Purpose of creative accounting We have seen that the main result achieved from using the various methods of creative accounting is to change the revenue, earnings and value of the business, but the real question is for what purpose is being employed? In other words, which stakeholders does it benefit or disadvantage? The answer to these questions, as the literature being reviewed has indicated, the purpose of creative accounting has different objectives for each segment of stakeholders (Blake and Lunt 2000). Firstly, many academic have concentrated upon the effect and benefit that creative accounting might have for the one group of stakeholders who are closest to the corporate operations, which would be the management team. The salaries, bonuses and other rewards for most CEOs and senior management are linked to the performance of the business and, if these performance levels are not reached, the rewards will not be forthcoming. However, there is no negative impact on salaries related to the amount by which targets are missed, for example, whether the results are 1 million of 5 million below target salaries will remain the same. Therefore, if the CEO believes that in a particular year the business will not reach the required target, it is to his or her advantage to shift earnings from that year into the next in order to enhance and improve the potential size of future rewards (Investopedia 2008). Furthermore, as has already been indicated in the previous section, management earnings manipulation is also a useful tool in enhancing the reputation of the management team itself. In addition to the benefits available to a new CEO and team as outlined, it is also possible that the same process will be used by management teams exiting the business to improve their attraction to future employees (Riahi-Belkaoui 2004). In other words it is being used for self interest purposes by the management (Scott 2003, p.91). Wealth transfer is another popular reason for manipulation (Stolowy and Breton 2004). This is especially prevalent where there is a group situation with a number of subsidiary companies involved, where it is not difficult to manipulate the accounts by moving earnings or assets from one of the businesses to another. Such a scenario might be seen as favourable where part of the corporate assets, in terms of one of the group corporations, might be being groomed for possible tak eover or flotation. Furthermore, in the case of a multinational, this method of Creative accounting is useful in transferring wealth from a business located in one country to that operating in another national location. In this case it can be helpful in combating political pressure that might be being exerted to transfer wealth away from the corporation (Pierce-Brown and Steele 1999, p.161). Further evidence of manipulation for political purposes was examined in the work of Stolowy and Breton (2000, p.13). In this case they looked at this mode of creative accounting as related to corporations within the oil industry. What they found was that, during periods such as the Gulf War, which resulted in increased retail prices of fuel, these corporations adopted accounting policies that were designed to reduce their revenue. The purpose of this exercise was to limit the potential political consequences that might result from their organisations being seen to make higher profits during this period. Finally, and perhaps the most important reason for creative accounting methods, it is the impact that these changes have upon current and potential investors that is often the focus of these actions. Most academic and professional researchers and observers, including Tweedie and Whittington (1990), Antill and Lee (2006), Barker (2001) amongst others, see this purpose as being the prime objective of creative accounting. Manipulating revenues and balance sheet items, as well as earnings management are intended to present the corporation to the investor in a good and positive light, encouraging them to make and/or retain the investment (Stolowy and Breton 2000, p.10). These methods can also be used to have a positive impact upon investors decision making indicators, such as the P/E ratio (Barker 2001, p.2) and cash flow statements (Mulford and Comiskev 2002, p.354). One of the adverse problems of this manipulation process is that it also has an effect upon the accounting for risk (Babbel et al 2003, p.16) and this can affect a whole industry. A typical example of this happening in practice can be witnessed in the current credit crunch (2008). There are those who argue that the effects of this event were exaggerated because of the financial institutions propensity for manipulating bad debts. It can be argued therefore that, whatever the immediate benefits are of creative accounting, and irrespective of which stakeholders receive those benefits, at some future stage there is likely to be witnessed an adverse reaction that will eliminate the short-term benefits. Furthermore, as the current bank crisis has indicated, the potential losses from this future reaction can threaten the continued existence of the corporation. 3 Accounting measurements and controversial issues The international financial reporting standards, as indicated previously, were designed to reduce creative accounting. Two areas which were singled out for particular attention within this situation were the accounting standards to be used for the valuation of property, plant and equipment and investment property as these were seen as areas of the financial statements that have a significant influence upon the value of a corporation (IASB 2008). 3.1 Methods of measurements There have been a number of measurements used in the past to arrive at a realistic value for these assets. The most commonly used was the historical cost method. This method used the initial cost of the asset as a starting point and then, as it was used within the business, depreciated that asset over what was considered its useful life, often using what was known as the direct line method of depreciation or amortisation. Foe example, if a particular item of equipment cost 10,000 and its life expectancy within the firm was set at 5 years, that asset would depreciate at 2,000 per annum. However, as Mulford and Comiskev (2002, p.321) rightly observe, the drawback to this system is that it often does not correlate with assets whose value did not diminish predictably over time. In the case of the 10,000 item used above, it might be that, at the end of its useful life to the company it was sold for 2,500, which means that, if this is received at the end of the useful life period, profits for the business for that year were enhanced by this amount. The argument against this system is that during the course of the previous four years the true value of the asset was not being reflected in the financial statements and this had an adverse effect on the value of the firm (Blake and Lunt 2000). Another method of measurement that was used within some financial accounting environments was replacement value (Lindsell 2005). This method takes the cost of replacement as its marker for valuation rather than the historical price paid. It also relies upon the current value of the used equipment to provide a calculation of the difference. Using the example of the 10,000 asset as an example, if the replacement cost was 11,000 and the amount receivable should the used asset be sold is 9,000, there is a difference of 2,000 to be accounted for. This differential would effectively replace the depreciation reserve used within the historical cost method and was deemed by some to be more appropriate in that it reflected known values (Bens and Heltzer 2004). The only risk element in using this method is taking into account the judgement on the sale of the used asset. A further method of measurement was introduced that relied upon exit value. The basic concept of this method was that it used the sales value of the corporations assets (Barker 2001, p.87). The calculation of this value might for example, be used in the case of the business being acquired by another or its value upon failure. The difficulty with both of these situations is that unless either situation was imminent, judgements and estimations had to be used to assess these values. One issue that arose with exit value, particularly in respect of the valuation of assets such as property, was the inclination to undervalue the asset for tax reasons (Mulford and Comiskev 2002, p.131). Others have referred to the asset sale element of this measurement as the net realisable value (NRV). This takes into account the market for the asset, the maximum return likely to be achieved, then deducts the cost of transportation and other ancillary disposal costs before arriving at the NRV value (Van Zij i and Whittington 2006, p.3). Prior to the settlement on fair value as being the most appropriate measurements, one measure that most academics thought would be favoured by the Standard setters was the deprival value approach (Van Ziji and Whittington 2006, p.3.). The intention of this process was to determine the cost of the asset based upon the removal effect that it would have upon the business, in other words what cost would the business incur if it was deprived of that asset. As indicated, many academics thought this method would produce the accurate results. However, the professionals were not of the same opinion (Van Ziji and Whittington 2006) and, through the process of consultation and lobbying it was their voice that one the day. One has to wonder whether to threat to manipulation and creative accounting had any influence upon the decisions made by professionals. Fair value was the concept introduced with the introduction of the IASB standards and measurements. The intention of fair value is to ensure that the financial statements produced by a corporation are a true representation of the physical values that could be achieved for the business assets and liabilities should these be liquidated at the date those statements were submitted. In this respect it differs from the historical cost method in that the most important statement under fair value is the balance sheet rather than the profit and loss account (Penman 2007, p. 8-9). Similarly, it favours realism rather than the conservative approach that was apparent in some of the previous methods (Swanson and Miller 1989, p.93). As most academics and professional observers are agreed, fair value has now become the most popular choice of all the available methods used within financial reporting statements (Stolowy and Breton 2000, Bens and Heltzer 2004, Staff team 2004 and Blake and Lunt 2000). However, one of its main disadvantages is its subjectivity. Those opposed to this method argue that subjective valuations do not work when account objective values are what is needed (Penman 2007, p.14). Although some believe that fair value has a use for investors (Schroeder et al 2005, p.310), there are others that argue the lack of verifiability of the inputs necessary to implement such a system potentially adds noise and bias over and above the more traditional historical cost estimates (Bens and Heltzer 2004, p.2). Even the fact that, in appropriate instances, the fair value still allows corporations to use the historical cost approach, as is the case with some asset valuations, rather than reducing the concerns over this method, it is felt that the mixed measurement can do more harm to values (Swanson and Miller 1989, p.90 and p.160). One of the major elements of the subjective argument is that fair values relies upon expert judgements and opinions, and that bias or error could lead to increased volatility in financial statements (Barth 2006, p.323) and also reduce the ability to be able to compare results across a specific industry or range of industries (Staff team 2004). As Antill and Lee (2005, p.67), the fact that fair value is reliant in most cases to expert opinion and natural bias means that the estimations included within the financial statements may differ from the actual values received for the assets, a position that will not be realised until the sale has taken place. Therefore, from the literature reviewed it is true to say that, irrespective of its increasing popularity, issues remain to be addressed in respect of the fair value method (Alfredson et al 2007, p.48). As Barker (2001, p.148) indicates, although the intention of this process is either to ensure there is a genuine relationship between th e asset and the profitability of the corporation or, by indicating an overpayment eliminate its value, the current concerns relating to judgement and verification of values brings the practical implementation of these objectives into question. 3.2 IFRS standards and measurements In its introductory framework document to the IFRS standards, the IASB (2001) identified the four main characteristics of quality to be exhibited within financial statements as being understandability, relevance reliability and comparability. It further identified that the elements of the statements to be concentrated upon were: a) An asset is a resource controlled by the entity because of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity. b) A liability is a present obligation of the entity arising from past events, the settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow from the entity of resources embodying economic benefits. c) Equity is the residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting all its liabilities. in relation to the balance sheet and, in terms of the profit and loss account The elements of income and expenses are defined as follows: a) Income is increases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of inflows or enhancements of assets or decreases of liabilities that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to contributions from equity participants. b) Expenses are decreases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of outflows or depletions of assets or incurrences of liabilities tha t result in decreases in equity, other than those relating to distributions to equity participants. In the early editions of the standards, references and definitions of the fair value method of measurement to be used were sparse. However, following consultations (IASB 2007 a and 2007 b), efforts were made to address this situation. This resulted in the creation of the following fair value definition: That fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arms length transaction (Van Ziji and Whittington 2006, p.6). The previous lack of guidance available was seen as a flaw in the standards (Alfedson et al 2007, p.7). This, together with the fact that the ISAB gave in to pressure from American corporations to give up on many of the changes that would have affected the asset of goodwill (Weil 2000 and Mard and Hitchner 2007), did not endear the system and standards to any experts, as continuing criticism from all sides has evidenced (Lee 2006). Both prior to and since the definition of fair value being introduced there has been strong criticism of the measurement systems and advice give for the need to resolve these issues (Tweedie and Whittington 1900 and Lindell 2005). Although regular consultations and improvements to the standards are ongoing, to date it is felt that the measurements still fail in their intention to increase transparency and comparability. This is particularly felt to be the case in terms of property, plant and equipment, and investment property, which will be discussed in th e following sections. 3.2.1 Measurements of property, plant and equipment The measurement and its definition relating to assets that belong within the group entitled as Property, Plant and Equipment are outlined within the summary of International Accounting Standard (IAS) 16. In this standard it defines the assets to be included in the financial statements in this section as being those which will produce a future economic benefit to the business. In terms of cost upon acquisition, the standard indicates that this will be calculated to include its purchase price and any other costs that are associated with transporting and installing the asset at the corporations premises. In relation to the measurement to be used in financial statements subsequent to the date of cost, the standard allows corporations to choose between the cost (historical approach) or the revaluation method (fair value) (IAS 16). The revaluation method requires an expert judgement of what the asset value would be at a given date. From this would be deducted any depreciation and impairment losses that had attached to the asset to the date of revaluation. It is also advised that this process should be carried out at regular intervals and certainly close to the date of the financial statements preparation. The fair value definition in this case is considered as being reliant upon the definition given in the previous section of this study (see page 19). 3.2.2 Measurements of investment property In many respects, for example, with the choice of measurements, the IAS 40 standard relating to investment property is similar to IAS 16. For example, in this case the choice is between: a) A fair value model, under which an investment property is measured, after initial measurement, at fair value with changes in fair value recognised in profit or loss; or b) A cost model. The cost model is specified in IAS 16 and requires an investment property to be measured after initial measurement at depreciated cost (less any accumulated impairment losses). An entity that chooses the cost model discloses the fair value of its investment property. The definition of investment property is considered to be property (land or a buildingor part of a buildingor both) held (by the owner or by the lessee under a finance lease) to earn rentals or for capital appreciation or both, rather than for: a. use in the production or supply of goods or services or for administrative purposes; or b. sale in the ordinary course of business. (IASB 2008). It should be noted at this point that the fair value indicated within this IAS standard would incorporated the same revaluation process as was explained within the previous section regarding IAS. 3.3 Issues arising from IAS 16 and IAS 40 There are several issues arising from these standards that need to be discussed. One of the most obvious from an internal viewpoint arises from the need for regular revaluations to be carried out. Furthermore, within the small print of the standards it does require that if one asset within a particular class is revalued, all of the assets in that class have to be (Deloittes 2008). This process increases the financial and time cost to the corporation, which detracts from other duties. Secondly, there is the issue of a mixture in choice of measurements being used. With a combination of the two measurements in operation, this is seen by many academics as being confusing and unreliable (Schroeder et al 2005, p.45 and VanZiji and Whittington2006, p.4). Furthermore, this situation can have an adverse effect in terms of the comparability objective that the IASB were aiming for (Mirza et al 2006). For example, the ability to be able to compare investment opportunity is a specific industry sector is diminished if there is a wide variance in terms of the value measurements operative within the corporations operating within that sector. Furthermore, with results of investment portfolios fluctuating and the cost of similar assets showing different values because of measurements (Langdendijk et al 2003, p.250), the reliability factor of the standards from the investors viewpoint is seriously compromised (Nobes 2004). As Swanson and Miller (1989, p.2) acknowledged in their research of close to two decades ago, investors need to have an full understanding of the measurements being used and, at least to date, this understanding does not seem to be available through a simple format. In a situation such as these measurement, where one of the driving forces in to improve the relevance and clarity, as Healy and Wahlen (1999, p.366) stated, it is important that the measurements themselves have credibility. This is clearly not the case at present, and it is agreed with findings of Swanson and Miller (1989, p.206), until the IASB provide more clarity in terms of definition and interpretation regarding the standards they are set ting, matters will not improve (Jones 2006). Furthermore, in terms of creative accounting, the current situation is not a sufficient deterrent and therefore does not provide the confidence in the accuracy of the financial statements that was intended (Chorafas (2006, p.5) upon their introduction. There still exists the opportunity for earnings management intended to either mislead some stakeholders about the underlying economic performance of the company or to influence contractual outcomes that depend on reported accounting numbers (Healy and Wahlen 1999, p.368). Company results being reviewed by investors and academics still show signs of manipulation, with the indication being, as the investor quoted earlier stated, that growth and decline in share value is being influenced by events that might have taken place earlier than the year being reviewed (Alciatore et al 2000 and King 2006). Academic studies that have taken place in countries outside of the UK (Kirschenheiter and Melumad 2002 and McLaney 2006), are confirming that the creative accounting methods, such as income smoothing, earnings management and the big bath process, are still being widely used. As indicated earlier, the impact of the credit crunch on bank financial statements can be seen to be further supporting evidence of this situation. According to recent report, the IASB in conjunction with the FASB are working together to further improve the fair value hierarchy (IASB 2007 a, and IASB 2007 b). This is focusing upon trying to deal with some of the issues being raised. In particular it has concentrated upon price of an asset or liability where no obvious market exists, suggesting that it should be valued as if that market does exist. However, as a correspondent to the Times (Letter 2008) commented, this appears to be a contradiction in terms. How can value something for which there is no formal foundation value available? If one concurs with the opinion expressed in literature, whether that is taken from the academic or professional stable, that fair value is at present subject to bias and manipulation, the question is how to address this problem. Does one call for a consensus of independent judgements to be made regarding fair value then use an average of these within the financial statements? This would have an adverse effect upon time and costs for the corporation. In the authors opinion it would be preferable for the relevant standard setters and accounting bodies to develop a system that does not have all the ambiguity and lack of direction that the present defining of fair value tends to encourage. 4 Conclusion As Amet et al (1999, p.15) research and survey showed, many within the accounting profession have produced what they consider to be justification for creative accounting. However, when one analyses these justifications the following two issues arise. Firstly, this approach appears to be at odds with the stated codes of practice of accounting bodies, which by definition does not include a rule that either encourages the concealing of manipulation or provide opportunity for it (Dean and Clarke 2007, p.98). Secondly, and perhaps more important is to consider who benefits. The majority of the beneficiaries from creative accounting are internal, being the business management. Therefore, the author would argue that, in view of the fact that corporate governance and accounting standards are designed to provide more transparency and give investors and other stakeholders a fair deal, which is the intention of fair value., the justifications given for creative accounting cannot be upheld. It is further concluded therefore, that there is a need for the regulatory bodies, such as the IASB, and the accountancy professionals, to work together to define international standards and measurements for fair value that achieve the objectives they were designed for. Perhaps once this have been achieved, the true owners of the business, these being the shareholders and the investors, will be able to be confident that the perceived value of their investment can be regarded as accurate. References Alciatore, M., P. Easton and N. Spear. (2000). Accounting for Impairment of Long-Lived Assets: Evidence from the Petroleum Industry. Journal of Accounting and Economics. 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Accounting The next wave of convergence. Financial Director, 1 Feb 2005.

The Faculty Senate Meeting Provided Examples Of Several...

Mark Heider – HIED 7110 Faculty Senate Review – Meeting held 2014-09-09 The Faculty Senate meeting provided examples of several matrix elements, including â€Å"agenda/direction† and â€Å"partnership†. In addition, the structure of the university collegium at BGSU is under consideration for change. Discussions of each of these concepts will be preceded by an overview of the portion of the meeting pertinent to it. The first matrix element to be considered here is â€Å"agenda/direction†. Direction is defined in part as â€Å"†¦ either the philosophy of the organization or its policy.† (Van Wart 2011). For purposes of this paper, direction will simply be defined as â€Å"what will the organization do?† The chair began the meeting by addressing the change in†¦show more content†¦The environment, defined by Duncan (1972) as â€Å"the totality of physical and social factors that are taken directly into consideration in the decision-making behavior of individuals in the organization† has changed for the Senate. Specifically, the collective bargaining agreement put in place has changed the social structure of the relationship between the faculty and the administration. The previously understood purview of the Senate has been altered by this significant environmental change. The process undertaken to brainstorm the issue of Senate direction was an example of the senate working to modify an element of the â€Å"university collegium† in place at BGSU. University collegium is described by Downey (2006) in part as: â€Å"the complex network of assumptions, traditions, protocols, relations and structures which permit the professoriate to control the academic affairs of the institution†. Utilizing general principles of social constructionism, ideas were considered by the senators in an informal peer-to-peer fashion to address the above questions. Working as a community of scholars with a wide variety of specializations, the senators made an effort to collectively define a new role for the Senate. Their ideas were collected and will be synthesized, with the intent of producing a â€Å"sense of the Senate† document to be used to guide further activities. The outcome of this

Information technology and its effect on organisat Essay Example For Students

Information technology and its effect on organisat Essay ional structure Organizations are in the midst of transformation. In many industries, mass production by large, vertically integrated, hierarchically organized firms is giving way to more flexible forms of both internal organization and industrial structure. Work is increasingly accomplished through networks of smaller, more focused groups. The resulting structure of sub-organizations is redefining the boundaries of both firms and industries. A case in point is the computer industry. In the past, large, vertically integrated firms such as IBM dominated the industry, which created products and services throughout the value chain from the microprocessor level all the way up to the provision of solutions. The vertical structure is now being replaced by a series of layers, each of which is, in effect, a separate industry. Value is generated by coalitions, where each member of a coalition specializes in its area of core competence and enhances it through the use of tactical or strategic partnerships. Internally, team structures are replacing the traditional hierarchical form. Incentives are increasingly based on performance, and achievements. In sum, modern enterprise is undergoing major restructuring and information technology IT is an important driver of this transformation. A fundamental change is taking place in the nature and application of technology in business. This change has profound and far-reaching implications for organizations and for youthe information age is evolving into a second era. Organizations that do not make this transition will fail. They will become irrelevant or cease to exit. Information Technology: Technology is usually referred to as the production process of a society or an industry. But, with the advent of computers, such assumption is no longer valid. We are now living in a new era of Information, and a new definition is born: Information Technology which combines the processing power of computers and all hardware and software that accompanies it, enabling those components to retrieve, process, store and distribute information to support decision-making and control in an organization. With such tools individuals can access and share a wide variety of information Information technology transcends the knowledge base constraints of general technology and gives the user access to a theoretically limitless perceptual field . The effects of computers and its accompanying systems have therefore, the capability to change social as well as organizational structures. Organization Structure: The structure of an organization is seen as providing the framework, which turns a collection of people and resources into an identifiable form. Mintzberg places considerable emphasis on structure and his definition proposes it as the summation of the ways in which a firms labor is directed and coordinated into tasks There are generally several models of organizations. But the most commonly used are the mechanistic form, which portrays the organization as a machine, and organic which view the organization as an organism, which is a more flexible model. Since structure (mechanistic or organic provides a framework for all the components of an organization including technology, we can therefore find a relationship between structure and technology, and more specifically IT. At the turn of the century, Frederick Taylor sought to put the wisdom for successful business organization on a scientific basis. His work guided a generation of managers towards success in adapting their organizations with the technologies, markets, labor and general environment of the era. By the 1920s, Henry Ford had applied the Taylorist approach and soon dominated the automobile market, driving dozens of competitors under. Ironically, these same principles are opposed to the prevailing wisdom of the 1990s. For example, consider the following guideline from The Science of Management It is necessary in any activity to have a complete knowledge of what is to be done and to prepare instructions the laborer has only to follow instructions. .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9 , .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9 .postImageUrl , .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9 , .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9:hover , .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9:visited , .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9:active { border:0!important; } .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9:active , .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9 .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .udd7a7648a64466528661eb4fa18425b9:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Same sex marriages Essay He need not stop to think. The current emphasis on empowerment, learning organizations, and even thriving on chaos stands in sharp contrast to the above advice. Similar contrast can be found with many, if not most, of the other principles that lead to success even as late as the 1960s. For example, there are growing calls for downsizing (vs. economies of scale), total quality (vs. cost leadership), project teams (vs. functional departments), networked organization (vs. clear firm boundaries); performance-based pay (vs. position .